Insert Abbreviated Title Essay Example for Free

Insert Abbreviated Title EssayIts a very baffling liaison that as humanity and technology has progressed, the rate at which the different diseases have emerged and multiplied has been almost directly proportional. If we look defend at the last hardly a(prenominal) generations we find that the diseases that were prevalent then were very different from ours. There was no such thing as the bird flu or the swine flu back then, it was just normal everyday flu which concourse would get and then recover from in a bit. But today the type of diseases that can be found ar numerous with many direct and indirect cost (which ar both financial and non financial) linked to them.The Costs The costs that one faces are numerous and its not just the person who is afflicted with the upsetness but all the people around them and the society suffer to some ground level or another. The costs are both financial and nonfinancial. The costs of the treatment, the testing, the commuting from the hous e to the hospital or to wherever the testing and examinations might have to effect place, the medication all fall under the heading of direct financial costs related to the disease.The non direct financial costs that are related are time spent away from work, the number of sick leaves one can avail and most of these are without pays. The non direct financial costs also station a strain on the workplace as deadlines are not met and other workers have to try and meet the demands of the employers, creating stress for them which could moderate to them falling ill or having high blood pressure or asthma attacks. Ill-Health Costs Introduction, 2005). Other costs that a person faces are the non financial ones where the inflicted person and family and friends go through much agony, trauma and pain hoping for the ordeal to end soon. The more life threatening or severe a disease the more people are worried, they stop taking care of their health, and are constantly worried and hoping things will improve which they may very easily not.Testing and preventingIt is therefore well(predicate) that a person has regular checkups with a doctor especially when they know there is a family history of some ailment or another within the close family (Early Disease Detection , 2008). This saves one from much pain and trauma later also preparing one mentally for what may come. The biggest advantage is that it reduces financial costs to a minimum preventing the major costs that arise when a disease is diagnosed at a later stage, when it might be even more ambitious to beat it at its own game making the person terminally ill.Conclusion The lives of everyone in this world are interconnected and dependent on separately other in some way or another. It is therefore important that to go on living healthily we take preventive measures to ensure that we lead a healthy life in a healthy environment. If the machine remains well oiled, it will function properly, if not, itll creak and squea k and make the mathematical process of the rest irregular.

Hybrid Cultures Essay Example for Free

Hybrid Cultures EssayThe ease of travel and almost universal access to the information superhighway facilitates the massive cultural permutation that goes on in the world today. In 2005, Kwai-Cheung Lo had scripted extensively on the exportation of Hong Kong popular culture and its strange relationship to China. Hong Kong could be considered one of the trump modern examples of a hybrid culture. Settled by the British for 150 years before its transfer back to China in 1997, Hong Kong bears much comparison to the West in terms of economic development and commerce. Its culture, however, is quite different from the mainland and reconciling the two by expanding the definition of what it means to be Chinese is demand as HK becomes less an independent entity and more of a Chinese protectorate. Today, the vast storehouse of popular culture proves that the sharp lines between different nations are press clipping with martial arts films, anime, and panda bears occupy the same space as Western action movies, McDonalds, and pop music. Massive immigration from third world countries to the West, pair with Western business people consulting with Asian companies contributes to the growing cultural exchange.The Disney phenomenon is a good example of this. Starting as a small theme position in Anaheim, CA, the company had developed parks in Florida, Paris, and Japan. Yet, the Japanese are determined to retain elements of their native culture even as they embrace an American business concept. When sociologists compared the American Disneyland with the Japanese version, they found many similarities and differences. For example, Jungle Cruise is arguably the most American. It is a traditional Disney ride that has changed little over the years.TDL (Tokyo Disneyland) has unbroken the design and narrative of Jungle Cruise while modifying its spiel. Cinderellas Castle Mystery Tour in contrast is unique to TDL. It is a story of Disney heroes and villains written for and told by the Japanese(p. 32).References Luo, K. C. (2005). Chinese Face/Off The Transnational Popular Culture of Hong Kong. University of Illinois Press Raz, A. E. (1999). Riding the Black Ship Japan and Tokyo Disneyland. Cambridge, MA Harvard University Asia Center

The relationship between education and development

The relationship mingled with development and ontogenyDevelopment, which implies commanding values, has been the concern of mankind from time immemorial. more(prenominal) re straightned thinkers devoted efforts to understand spudment better consequently theories of development have emerged. Ingemar Fagerlind and Lawrence J. Saha (1983) cited at least four clusters of development theories, namely, the (i) classic cyclical guess, which includes the classic and Roman views of the never ending cycles of military issue and decay of all material things, including nations and civilization (ii) Augustinian Christian theory, which represented the views of doomsdayer who memorises the world as heading toward major catastrophe, including the little terror from a nuclear war or the explosion of the population bomb (iii) linear theory, represented by optimists who see development as a eternal progress and (iv) cyclical linear theory which melts the essence of the conflict orientat ion of the cyclical theory and the optimistic orientation of the linear theory.By and large, people who see a dynamic interactive relationship between education and development atomic number 18 advocates of the linear model theory. Within this model, however, atomic number 18 three groups of social scientists, namely, the so called structural functionalists (e.g. Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton), the human neatist theories (e.g. Theodore Schultz), and the sophisticatedization theorists (Alex Inkeles).The human neatist theory and to a current ex hug drugt the freshization theory constitute the frame move around for create cases to show that education stirs development.The human capital theory postulates that the most efficient path to national development lies in the melioration of a countrys population. And of course, educators and almost all socio-economic planners are convinced that the best way to improve the population is through various forms of education and traini ngThose who think of education as crucial to development also draw inspiration from the immature(a)ization theory. Alex Inkeles and his colleagues think that to modernize is to develop. Society quite a littlenot develop unless its population holds modern attitudes and values. They see a direct relationship between education and socio-economic development, in that education brings about a change in outlook in the singular which promotes productiveness and work efficiency. Education has a modernizing bewitch on values, beliefs and behaviours which make human beings more development-oriented. Viewed from the modernization theory, education is called upon to re-orientate and/or suppress beliefs, attitudes and values which tend to obstruct the initiation of the modernization movement.EDUCATION, DEVELOPMENT AND humans CAPITAL THEORYS.G. Strumlin first attempted to quantify the role of education in economic growth in 1925. It was not until the late 1950s and early(a) 1960s that int erest in the study of the nature of the changes occurring in the different sectors of the economy in the coupled States of the States pushed economists to search for explanations. Some of these economists such as Denison and Solow found out that a large part of growth in Gross National Product (GNP) in the United States over the first half of the 20th Century remained unexplained when they tried to attribute the growth to conventional economic factors. Even after taking into account increases in real strong-arm capital like equipment, structures and the like, and total number of hours worked, a large residual still remained to be explained. However, they came to realize that important qualitative changes in the labour bosom had occurred. People were more productive for each hour they worked because of the greater skills and knowledge they possessed. The given was made that chunk education was instrumental to these high levels of productivity thatthey were notice in the economy .Economists such as Schults and Becker, and economists of education such as Welch andHoffman explained a part of the residual by what they called gentleman slap-up of whicheducation through formal schooling was considered a major factor. It is the view of Fagerlind and Saha that one of the first systematic articulations of the Human Capital conjecture occurred in 1960 in Theodore Schultzs Presidential Address to the American Economic Association on the topic investiture in Human Capital. In the address, Schultz suggested that education-was not to be viewed simply as a form of usance but rather as a productive investment. He also argued that an educated population provided the type of labour force necessary for industrial development.Proponents of Human Capital Theory assume that formal education is highly instrumental to the benefit of the productive capacity of a population. The improvements of the productive capacity of the human work force in this sense is a form of capital investment. Human capital theorists postulated that the most efficient path to national development lies in the improvement of human capital through education. They also contended that the two pre-conditions for economic growth and development in any nation were investment in education and improvement in technology. Klees and Wells put this argument as followsHuman Capital Theory considers educational activities explicitly as investment that contribute to efficiency now and growth over time. From this perspective, education develops an individuals productive skills and at that placefore yields benefits over time to the individual and to the society as a whole. Thus we can evaluate, at least in part, the relative worth of allocating resources to educational activities compared to other alternative uses of these resources by examining educational cost and benefits. This framework has provided the foundation for a considerable amount of educational resource and policy through the dev eloped and developing world. This orientation championed by Schultz and Associates dominated the thinking in Economics of Education throughout the sixties. It formed the basis for custody planning models used in forecasting educational enrollments required for specific development needs.Human Capital Theory also gave economists the conceptual tools with which to bond man -power regards, their changes over time in response to economic growth and the educational system and to incorporate them into elaborate national development plans and growth targets. quadruple manpower planning strategies or guidelines emerged from Human Capital question. They are the loving Demand Approach, the Manpower Requirements Analysis, the Cost-Benefit or Rate of Return Analysis and the Optimum allotment of Resources Method.The social demand approach assumes that education is a social good. It is believed that itsexpansion as the demand arises result eventually result in benefits for the society. The refore the deposit should bear the costs of educational expansion. Demographic data and social conditions are used in planning educational provisions when using this approach. Manpower require-ments for certain economic production targets can be estimated and produced through the formal education system. Planning education using this techniqueinvolves estimating skill requirements for certain occupational categories take for economic development over a arrest of time.In cost-benefit analysis, estimates of the costs of acquiring various levels and kinds of education and the benefits associated with each kind and level are made. The assumption is that the value of the ratios so estimated would guide planners in decision- qualification with respect to the kinds of education to be offered or changed. In so doing, competitive rates of amends on investment in education relative to other investment portfolios in the conventional capital markets can be maintained.The method used in opti mum allotment of resources is to describe the principal relationships between education and other sectors of the economy and then to allocate resources optimally, given some objective functions and constraints. In general, linear programming techniques are used to derive the education production functions.In most developing countries, the manpower requirements approach was used as a guideline to relate educational planning to economic needs. A survey in 76 countries in 1968 showed that 65 of them had educational plans modeled after the manpower needs of the country. How-ever, as Sobel pointed out, protagonists of the manpower planning approach subsequently developed systematic mathematical models integrating manpower needs and educational planning which resulted in a proliferation of single-occupation studies in near all societies by each university or national university system, governmental manpower department, education ministry or vocational training department. Linear program ming techniques were used to combine rates of perish or cost-benefit analyses approaches with manpower requirements techniques to generate models of demand for education from the expected level and distribution of output in a given economy. These were through with(p) in an effort to ascertain whether the resultant manpower and education mix would maximize the growth of Gross National Product, maximize the excess of benefits over the costs of education. Most of the research findings showed that in country after country, a correlation exists between levels of education and subsequent lifetime earnings. In a comprehensive research study, Psacharopoulos standardized53 rate of return studies for 32 different countries and sought to determine what generalizations could be made from the results. Some of the findings are as follows* rates of return are generally higher in less developed countries* primary education tends to yield the highest returns* returns to human capital exceed those on physical capital in underdeveloped countries but roughly equal those on physical capital in developed countries and* differences in per capita income can be explained better by differences in human than in physical capital.This theoretical orientation of the Human Capital Theory, as Kless and Wells point outprovided a basic exculpation for large public expenditure on the expansion of formal school systems in developing countries. Its appeal was based on the presumed economic returns to investment in education both at the macro and micro levels. Thus governments intensified efforts to invest in Human Capital so as to achieve rapid economic growth and development.The obvious policy implication for most governments given the results of such empirical research was to expand enrollments and to provide for a longer period of schooling in order to maximize the benefits from schooling.In Africa, a Conference of African States on the development of Education in Africa was organized by t he United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) from May 15 25, 1961. The Conference, as Thompson noted, firmly grasped the concept that education was an investment in productivity and urged that educational provision should be planned continuously in relation to manpower needs at all times.EDUCATION, DEVELOPMENT AND MODERNITY THEORY other dimension from which the relationship between education and development wasvigorously examined and explicated during the 1960s was in the social psychological andsociological formulations of modernity theory. Modernity theorists argued that modernization is fundamentally a social-psychological process through which a country becomes modern only after its population has adopted modern attitudes, values and beliefs. They tried to show that there were causal links between modernizing institutions, modern values, modern behaviour, modern society and economic developmen t. They maintained that the creation of modern values can be planned. event social institutions like the school, the family, the media and the workplace were identified as being of extreme importance in the emergence of modem values. However, most modernity theorists placed considerable stress on education because the school was perceived as a major agent in producing the skilled manpower and the modemattitudes and values necessary for the existence of a modern society.In the early postWorld War II era, approximately twenty societies were regarded as highly modernized and roughly another ten to twenty were depicted as having passed a threshold on the path to modernization.Definitions of modernized varied. Some noted structural features, such as levels of education, urbanization, use of dyspnoeic sources of energy, and fertility. Others pointed to attitudes, such as secularization, achievement orientation, functional specificity in formal organizations, and acceptance of equality in relationships. Conscious of the ethnocentric nature of many earlier explanations for growth in national power and income, social scientists in the 1950s and 1960s generally omitted cultural traits associated closely with Western history from definitions of modernity. Yet, given the rhetoric of the cold War and a preoccupation with democracy in U.S. national identity, political institutions became a central factor in many definitions.The theory of modernization normally consists of three parts (1) identification of types of societies, and explanation of how those designated as modernized or relatively modernized differ from others (2) specification of how societies become modernized, comparing factors that are more or less conducive to transformation and (3) generalizations about how the parts of a modernized society fit together, involving comparisons of stages of modernization and types of modernized societies with clarity about prospects for provided modernization. Actually, reasoning about all of these issues predated postwar theory. From the Industrial Revolution, there were recurrent arguments that a different type of society had been created, that other societies were either to be go forth permanently behind or to find a way to achieve a similar transformation, and that not all modernizing societies had equal success in sustaining the process due to differences in economic, political, and other institutions. In the middle of the 1950s, these themes acquired new social science and political casting with the cl guide of increased rigor in analysis.(Modernization Theory Defining Modernization TheoryModernization TheoryModernization theory is a description and explanation of the processes of transformation from traditional or underdeveloped societies to modern societies. In the words of one of the major proponents, Historically, modernization is the process of change towards those types of social, economic, and political systems that have developed in Western Europe and North America from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth and have then spread to other European countries and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the South American, Asian, and African continents (Eisenstadt 1966, p. 1). Modernization theory has been one of the major perspectives in the sociology of national development and underdevelopment since the 1950s. Primary attention has focused on ways in which past and present premodern societies become modern (i.e., Westernized) through processes of economic growth and change in social, political, and cultural structures.In general, modernization theorists are concerned with economic growth within societies as indicated, for example, by measures of gross national product. Mechanization or industrialization are ingredients in the process of economic growth. Modernization theorists study the social, political, and cultural consequences of economic growth and the conditions that are important for industrializ ation and economic growth to occur. Indeed, a degree of circularity often characterizes discussions of social and economic change involved in modernization processes because of the notion, insert in most modernization theories, of the functional compatibility of component parts.Although, there are many versions of modernization theory, major implicit or explicit tenets are that (1) societies develop through a series of evolutionary stages (2) these stages are based on different degrees and patterns of social differentiation and reintegration of structural and cultural components that are functionally harmonious for the maintenance of society (3) contemporary developing societies are at a premodern stage of evolution and they eventually will achieve economic growth and will take on the social, political, and economic features of western European and North American societies which have progressed to the highest stage of social evolutionary development (4) this modernization will res ult as complex Western technology is imported and traditional structural and cultural features incompatible with such development are overcome.For example, in the social realm, modern societies are characterized by high levels of urbanization, literacy, research, health care, secularization, bureaucracy, mass media, and transportation facilities. Kinship ties are weaker, and nuclear conjugal family systems prevail. Birthrates and death rates are lower, and life forethought is relatively longer. In the political realm, the society becomes more participatory in decision-making processes, and typical institutions include universal suffrage, political parties, a civil service bureaucracy, and parliaments. traditional sources of authority are weaker as bureaucratic institutions assume responsibility and power. In the economic realm, there is more industrialization, technical upgrading of production, replacement of exchange economies with extensive bills markets, increased division of l abor, growth of infrastructure and commercial facilities, and the development of large-scale markets. Associated with these structural changes are cultural changes in role relations and personality variables. Social relations are more bureaucratic, social mobility increases, and status relations are based less on such ascriptive criteria as age, gender, or ethnicity and more on meritocratic criteria. There is a shift from relations based on tradition and loyalty to those based on rational exchange, competence, and other universally employ criteria. People are more receptive to change, more interested in the future, more achievement-oriented, more concerned with the rights of individuals, and less fatalistic.Educational Reform and Human Capital Development.Aga Khan University Examination Board (AKU-EB) is a Federal Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education established by Aga Khan University (AKU) in response to demand from schools for more appropriate school examinations. AKU-EB was founded in August 2003. It offers examination services to both Secondary School present (SSC) and Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC) throughout Pakistan. Its primary purpose is to improve the quality of education by making examinations of reputable standard more accessible to Pakistani students and having them increasingly value by leading higher education institutions in and outside the country.In 2000, AKU-BOT approved the recommendation of the task force to establish and examination board. Its principal aim was to offer high quality public examinations using modern methods of assessment to test achievement within the national curriculum in order to enhance the quality of education. AKU-EB from the beginning was envisaged as a small undertaking which would be able to serve as a role model to have positive impact in field of education.There has been great amount of funds poured in to AKU EB. Besides AKU, USAID supported through the Governments Educational Sector Refo rms throughout Pakistan . aft(prenominal) the initial start-up period of five years, the University expects to become solely responsible for AKU-EBs financial affairs.The general objective of the AKU-EB is to design and offer high quality public examinations in English and Urdu based on the national curriculum for secondary and higher secondary education. It also arranges training sessions for teachers to develop appropriate learning materials to prepare teachers and students for the new examination system. It is intended to serve as a model of internationally recognized good practice in order to enhance the countrys capacity for educational assessment and tests, and therefore to improve the quality of education in schools, and through them, the quality of education in the national universities.The concept of human capital and education revolutions intertwined because formal education is an important factor in human capital formation.One of the objectives of AKU EB is to improve sc hool environment by improving their curriculum by changing assessment strategy. Generally an individuals levels of human capital are raised producing better school results. Hence this effect the policy making in public and privte sector involved in educational reforms.Education is an investment in human capital, that is, in the skills and knowledge that produce a return to the individual in the form of higher earnings. Education also has social returns or spillovers. The presence of educated workers in a region enhances the earnings of those who, irrespective of their own educational level, work with or near educated workers.I would be interested to know about how AKU EB is measuring its impact on schools and teachers. How it can be explained by human capital development theory perspective? How is it investing in building infra structure and equiopment and training? What are individual and social returns of AKU EB efforts? And what are its effects on changing other local boards asse ssment strategies and curricula. How are teachers and parents looking at AKU EB as source of human capital development?

Irish Potato Famine Causes and Consequences

Irish murphy Famine Causes and ConsequencesThe Irish Potato Famine was a tax event in Irish history that claimed millions of casualties. Often referred to as the colossalest Disaster to have struck Ireland, the direct cause of the deficit was due to the Potato beset that ruined mevery harvests and driving the Irish population into hunger and starvation. As a result, numerous Irish immigrated in large numbers into the mainland of Great Britain, Canada, and the United States. The paucity give the sack be attri thoed as a reason for creating the early foundations of the Irish communities in America (Allan 5). However, the effect of the shortage could have been extenuated had the slope approached the problem differently. The English dislike for the Irish and establishment of land natural laws drove the Irish into a financial crisis which led the Irish into being solely open on the potato. This continued dependency worsened the impact of the famine (Connell 281). To properly u nderstand why the famine ravaged the Irish population so much, unriv aloneed must first understand the historical relationship between the Irish and the English and how the potato fits into the picture.From the very beginning, the Irish and the English conflicted with each other. King total heat II of England in 1171 took advantage of fighting in Ireland to annex the island within the kingdom. However, unlike the Scottish and Welch, Ireland never wanted to coexist under the English rule. Ireland was as well geographically, linguistically, and culturally distanced from England which affected its ability to work with lawmakers to keep Irish interests (Allan 7). During the facing pages of the protestant reformation in the 16th century Europe, religious differences between the papistical Catholic Irish and the eventual Protestant England worsened the mutual perception of each other. This gap in the relationship in like manner had serious international diplomatic consequences as t he Catholic Irish favored other Catholic nations who were often Englands enemies in this religious war. Subduing the Catholic Ireland became a very important objective to the Protestant English Cr give amidst these religious wars. The per centumage point of the Tudor Conquest was a very bloody one and victory to subdue Ireland had been achieved under Elizabeth I. However, enforcing Protestantism proved to be a difficult endeavor for the later regime (Pelling 2).In lieu of using aggressive force like Elizabeth I, James I used more(prenominal) subtle tactics. Instead of forcibly converting the Irish Catholic into Protestants openly, he sent hordes of Protestants from England and Scotland to settle Ireland. Inevitably, this deeply hurt the English-Irish relationship and led to frequent b go forths of violence throughout the 17th century. After the defeat of the Catholic James II of Boyne, a ruling Protestant class emerged out of Ireland and was supported by a compendium of discrim inatory laws passed, between 1620-1728, to repress Catholicism. These laws restricted Catholics from participating in politics, holding official positions, buying or inheriting land. The bishops were likewise subject to these laws often experiencing throw outishment or being forced to register and practice preaching in very limited regions. These laws were approximatelywhat successful in converting the Catholics who wanted to escape persecution which reaffirmed the susceptibility of James plan (Pelling 3). However, the rest of the Catholic population suffered in poverty due to the severity of these penal laws.The penal laws made it nearly impossible for Catholics to own land. As a result, close rented land from Protestant land owners. The landowners generally preferred to live in their estates and left over(p) the management of the land to agents. These agents, interested in making a profit, would rent out smaller plots of land at higher prices to the tenants. At the bottom o f this hierarchy was the Irish peasant who was burdened with maturement enough food for subsistence and paying the highest rent per unit of land. The introduction of the potato allowed poor Irishmen to access nutrients necessary for development not only for themselves but also for their livestock (Wong).The first Irish potatoes, grown by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1588, were introduced to the farming community. Eventually it made its way to Ireland where Irishmen quickly adopted the versatility of this crop. Before the potato, the Irish typically consumed grain and milk. The problem with these is that milk often becomes easily accessible if one has large plots of lands that allow livestock to easily graze. However, this was not the case for the one-sixteenth century Irish as land was constantly being captured and redistributed. The oats and grains in this case took spaciouser to grow and poor pile did not have the manner to process these grains. The potato replaced grains and milk a s an easy to store, easy to access alternative. not only that, the potato could also be easily prep bed by boiling it. Even in cases when Irish tenants faced confiscation during split upure to pay rent, the potato could be easily hidden by burying it cloak-and-dagger unlike the grain. Displaced people could re-grow potatoes faster than they could with grain. Despite their situation, as long as the climate and the soil favored the potato, they could grow it without much difficulty. The potato dependency of the Irish grew out of desperate need to keep oneself and the family alive (Connell 282-3).The potato proved to be a very easily attainable crop whose nourishing effects will be seen on the Irish population over a period of time. For a very long time, the potato grew well enough in Ireland to increase the population. From 1750 to 1840, the population nearly tripled from 2.6 million to 8.5 million people. However, these increases were noticed in areas where Irish peasants grew pota toes because potatoes yielded more food per acre of land compared to any other crop. However, it would be these move of the population that would be most affected by the potato blight (ONeill 35-6).The main culprit behind the potato famine was the genus Phytophthora infestans which is an oomycete. An oomycete is a fungus-like eukaryote. Not to be confused with fungus, oomycetes are responsible for some of the most devastating plant diseases-the Potato Blight being one of them (Sleigh 289). The Potato Blight spores favor warm and wet conditions. Rain and wind also play a part in table serviceing the spores travel and infect plants over long distances. Even if the infection sets in, the early stages of blight can be easily missed as not all the plants are infected simultaneously. Signs of the blight can be seen as dark patches on the leaf of the plant. Whitish mold begins to form on the leaves and the infected tubers appear botched. Overall, the plant and its tubers begin to rot (Ko epsell and Pscheidt 165). The Phytophthora infestans originated from the highlands to central Mexico. The first recorded incidence involving the blight was in the United States in 1843. The winds from the United States carried the spores toward Nova Scotia which traveled across the Atlantic Ocean with a payload of seed potatoes in 1845 heading toward Europe (Reader).Once the Blight was in Europe, it spread throughout many a(prenominal) parts of Northern and Central Europe. By 1845 Belgium, Holland, blue France and southern England had all been stricken. (Donnelly 42). In 1845, the crops lost to the Blight have been estimated to be 50-60% (Kinealy 32). The Irish rural were hit the hardest in 1846 and that is when deaths were recorded due to starvation. This trend had a catastrophic impact for people who were completely dependent on the potato for food (Kennedy et. al 69). Not only did the Irish starve, they were faced with evictions as a result of failure to come up with proper re nt payments. Poor result from the English authorities did not remedy the problem either.Michel, a political journalist and national activist, wrote on the English Rule on March 7, 1846 that the Irish were expecting famine day by day and owed it not to the rule of paradise as to the greedy and cruel policy of England. In the same article, he continued to write that the people believe that the season as they roll are but ministers of Englands rapacity that their starving children cannot sit down to their scanty meal but they see the harpy claw of England in their dish. Mitchel wrote that the Irish simply watched as their food rotted away(predicate) at the same time heavy-laden ships, freighted with the yellow corn their own hands have sown and reaped, spreading all sail for England (Mitchel). In The Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), written by Mitchel in 1861, it treated the British policies toward the famine as a method to deliberately hitch out the Irish and circulated the fa mous phrase, The Almighty, indeed, send the potato blight, but the English created the Famine (Mitchel). Records indicate that Ireland exported food even during the worst of the famine.When Ireland go through a famine in the early 1780s, the government responded by banning any exports which caused the food prices to drop quickly. However, in the case of this famine, no bans were seen in the 1840s (Kinealy 354). Cecil Woodham-Smith, author of The Great hurt Ireland 1845-1849, wrote that food exports in the face of the famine caused greater tensions between the Irish-English relationship. Nothing made the Irish angrier than the indisputable fact that huge quantities of food were exported from Ireland to England throughout the period when the people of Ireland were dying of starvation. Woodham-Smith notes that Ireland continued to be a net exporter of food throughout most of the famine (Ranelagh 115). Not only did the wishing of an export ban hurt the Irish condition but the unwilli ngness of the English government to directly cull the problem made the effects of the famine worse.Lyons describes the English response to the first phase of the famine to be successful (Lyons 30). In response to the crop failure of 1845, Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel bought hundred thousand British pounds worth of corn from America. However, the shipment was delayed by weather conditions and did not arrive until 1846. Once the shipment had arrived, the corn had not been ground into its edible form. In order to do this, it would be a long process and the Irish would not be able to carry it out locally due to the lack of means (Kinealy 38). Peel also motioned to repeal the tariffs on the grain to lower their prices. However, it did not remedy the problem. As the famine continued to grow worse in 1846, the conservative party split on the issue and Peel was forced to resign on June 29 (Ranelagh 115). Peel was succeeded by Lord can buoy Russell who incompetently acted towards the fami ne and worsening the humanitarian crisis.Russell and his ministry enacted a public works project with the goal of employing as many Irish as possible. However, the project proved to be difficult to handle (Kinealy 80). Under Russells ministry, Sir Charles Trevelyan served in charge of administering famine relief. His lack of action and prejudice toward the Irish was widely believed to worsen the famine (Lyons 30-4) . Trevelyan perceived the famine as mechanism for reducing surplus population and characterized the famine to be The judgment of God sent the hap to teach the Irish a slighton, that calamity must not be too much mitigatedThe real evil with which we must contend is not the physical evil of the Famine but the moral evil of the selfish, perverse and turbulent character of the people (ORiorden). The new Russell ministry then strictly followed the laissez-faire belief which led to a stop of the government based food and relief which left many people without work, food, or mo ney (Woodham-Smith 408-11). After abandoning these projects, relief was primarily supplied through workhouses and soup kitchens. However, the cost of carrying these projects reduce on local hands, primarily on the landlords who would in turn evict the tenants to avoid carrying out this responsibility (Lyons 33).Landlords were responsible for paying on behalf of tenants who paid less than 4 in annual rent. Consequently, landlords who housed many poorer tenants caused them to be a liability. To solve this issue, landlords began evicting tenants from the smaller plots to clear any debt. According to James Donnelly Jr., almost 250,000 people were evicted between 1849 and 1854 (Poirteir 155). In West Clare alone, landlords evicted families by the thousands. After Clare, County Mayo evictions accounted for 10% of all evictions between this time. One of the worst evictors being Earl of Lucan who purportedly owned over 60,000 estate of the realm of land, evicted around 2,000 tenants and used the empty land for grazing (Litton 96). In response to this, violence occasionally broke out against the landlords. Lord Clarendon appealed to Russell out of fear of a revolt but was ignored because Russell held them mostly responsible. Russell was quoted saying It is quite true that landlords in England would not like to be shot like hares and partridgesbut neither does any landlord in England turn out fifty persons at once and burn their houses over their heads, giving them no provision for the future. Despite Russells disagreement over the issue, the nuisance and Outrage Act was passed in the December of 1847 to cull any additional rebellions (Litton 98-99). other example of unwise policy making under Russell ministrys wing was the Gregory clause. Donnelly describes it to be a particularly vicious amendment to the Irish Poor Law which would prevent certain tenants who had more than quarter-acre of land from receiving any assistance. The Gregory clause was welcomed by the p oor law commissioners who saw it as an easy way out of administering relief. However, many, including Donnelly, would agree that this clause was indirectly a death-dealing instrument (Donnelly 110). In the light of the circumstances created by the famine, many Irish families resorted to emigration which paved one of the early foundations of the Irish American communities.During the famine, the Irish emigrated to England, Scotland, the United States, Canada, and Australia. Traveling such distances was not without a price. It is estimated that one out of five died from disease and malnutrition and mortality rates of 30% on the coffin ships were not unusual (The Shiplist). Due to starvation, evictions, and sub-human living conditions, more or less 2 million left Ireland by 1854. Most Irish immigrants in America made up a significant population in Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore by 1850s. The 1851 census identify indicated large influx of the Irish in Toronto, Ontar io making up over a half of their population. Canadian cities such as Saint John, Quebec city, Montreal, Ottawa, and Hamilton also experienced a sharp influx of Irish immigrants (Gray 97-9). Although some Irish managed to escape the famine, not everyone had the opportunity or the means to do so. Many, unfortunately, lost their lives to the famine.It isnt known how many exactly died during the Famine but it is believed that more died from diseases than from starvation. Official record keeping by the government had not yet started and the Roman Catholic Church records were not complete either (The General Register Office). However, many eye witness accounts suggested some characteristics of the famine and diseases that afflicted the Irish. English Quaker William Bennett in Mayo wrote aboutthree children huddled together, lying there because they were too weak to rise, pale and ghastly, their little limbsperfectly emaciated, eyes sunk, voice gone, and evidently in the last stages of e xistent starvation.Marasmic children, who suffered from a severe form of protein-energy malnutrition, greatly disturbed Quaker Joseph Crosfield who witnessed, in 1846, a heart-rending scene of poor wretches in the last stages of famine imploring to be received into the house. Some of the children were worn to skeletons, their features sharpened with hunger, and their limbs wasted almost to the bone.It has been a difficult task for historians to predict a close number of lives lost to the famine due to poor record keeping. The disputed information gathered by the census commissioners for deaths occurred since 1841 found that there were 21,770 deaths that occurred from starvation and 400,720 deaths from disease. The diseases thought to have caused these deaths were fever, dysentery, cholera, smallpox, and influenza. The census commissioners remarked that The greater the amount of destitution of mortality, the less will be the amount of recorded deaths derived from any household form-f or not only were whole families swept away by disease, but whole villages were effaced from off the land. (Kennedy,et.al 106) Historians also believe that it is a reasonable scenario for disease to be so rampant considering the living conditions of the Irish during the famine. The most important factor towards spreading diseases is enabling human contact under unsanitary conditions. Mass gatherings at the soup kitchens and work houses served as ideal conditions for pathogens to spread from one person to another. Many diseases also afflicted the Irish due to malnutrition. Nutritional induced illnesses were starvation, marasmus (protein deficiency), and Dropsy (Edema). What made these diseases worse is that non-nutritional dependent diseases manifested severely in starved people than they would in otherwise normal individuals (Kennedy, et al. 104). Keeping all these conditions in mind, a likely estimate of deaths were approximated to one million from disease and starvation. Another mi llion have been believed to have emigrated out of Ireland. As a result, some scholars estimate that the Irish population was reduced by 20 to 25 percent (H. Kennedy 43). Even after the famine had past, it still continued to affect the Irish political scene and still continues to be a controversial event in Irish history.The poor British policies toward the famine stirred unforgivable and unforgettable anger within the Irish. Many Irish who emigrated to the United States quickly became part of associations that favored Irelands independence and repeal of the Act of Union. The famine and its causes became the main foundation of Irish emigrant anger. Most of them viewed it to be the reason for leaving Ireland in the first place. John Mitchel, journalist for the Nation, expressed the emigrants angry sentiments when he wroteThe Almighty indeed sent the potato blight but the English created the famine, a million and half men, women, children were carefully, prudently, and peacefully slain by the English government. They died of hunger in the midst of abundance which their own hands created. (Mitchel, English Rule)As a result, these sentiments ignited the desire for Ireland to hightail it from Englands grasp. After a failed 1848 rebellion (also known as the Famine rebellion) led by the Young Irelanders, some of the members fled to America. In the absence of British restrictions, the Young Irelanders boost anti-British sentiments and began another group referred to as the Fenian Brotherhood and its Irish counterpart being the Irish Republican Brotherhood devoted toward eradicating the British rule from Ireland. This Brotherhood also went so far as to recruit the Irish Americans who served in the Civil War to take part in an insurrection in Ireland. However, this plan would fail due to poor communications. However, this did not discourage the Irish from advancing the cause for independence. This time, the Irish Revolutionaries chose to pursue a movement that was gras sroots although Irish American help would not be turned away (The History Place). The fight for independence would continue well into the 20th century still fueled by what the Irish, and some historians, believe to be a man-made famine.Even in modern times, some historians suggest that the British inaction classifies the famine as an attempt to consistently wipe out the Irish. Francis A. Boyle, a law professor of University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, wrote in 1996 a report that the English government attempted to ethnically cleanse the Irish through enforcing policies aimed to hurt the Irish as a group (Ritschel). Historian Peter Duffy wrote that The governments crime, which deserves to blacken its name forever was based in the effort to remedy Ireland by landlord-engineered replacement of tillage plots with grazing lands that took precedence over the obligation to provide food for its starving citizens. It is little wonder that the policy looked to many people like genocide. (Duffy 297-8) However, historians such as Cormac O Grada assert that the Famine should not be considered a genocide because the sentiment to exterminate the Irish as a group of people was absent. O Grada, instead, claims that the Famine was an extreme case of neglect and poor decision making on the English governments part (O Grada 10).

Comparative Drug Review Gastrointestinal Therapies Tagamet And Nexium Biology Essay

Comparative Drug Review Gastrointestinal Therapies cimetidine And Nexium Biology EssayTagamet and Nexium crap been two of the many common drugs these days, both of which are largely used in the medical intercession of major gastric acid-related disorders like peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), with their respective supple ingredient being cimetidine and esomerprazole.In view of their similar uses in gastrointestinal therapies, this check over addresses various major characteristics possessed by the two drugs and in an attempt to make a vivid comparison between them in accordance to their wide awake ingredients, for providing in public figureation optimizing the selection of gastric acid-related drugs at different clinical conditions.MechanismBoth cimetidine and esomeprazole serve to cure gastrointestinal disorders by reducing the secernment of gastric acid, however, with different drug home runs to be acted on and mechanisms to bring abou t their actions. Cimetidine, being a histamine H2 receptor competitive antagonist (H2RA), reversibly binds to the histamine H2 receptor on the acid-secreting parietal cell of the stomach and lead to the production of second messenger cAMP which can ultimately trigger the H+/K+-ATPase to pump more than(prenominal) acid out of the cell. Thus, the binding of histamine released by Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells in the stomach to the receptors, which in turn stimulates gastric acid secretion, is inhibited. At the same time, with the blockage of the histamine H2 receptors by cimetidine, the instal of both gastrin- and acetylcholine-stimulated acid secretion would be reduced. All these result in the lowering of acidity in the stomach.Esomeprazole, being a proton pump inhibitor (PPI), acts by an altogether different mechanism. Esomerprazole is a weak-base prodrug and it accumulates in the unique, highly acidic canalicular space of the active parietal cell, where the pH is less than 2 .0. At this pH, it is converted to the active form of the drug, which then covalently binds to one or more cysteines that are accessed from the luminal surface of the gastric proton pump in gastric parietal cells, the H+/K+ ATPase enzyme, the target of which esomeprazole acts on. As a result, this irreversibly inhibits the H+/K+ ATPase enzyme, whose activity is involved in the final step of gastric acid secretionTherapeutic potencyOwing to their different mechanisms of action, the gastric acid-suppressive piece produced by them varies, thus leading to variation in their effectiveness for treating related diseases. In general, PPIs (e.g. esomerprazole) are more sozzled than H2RAs (e.g. cimetidine) because the former inhibits the H+/K+ ATPase enzyme involved in the final step of acid secretion1, as the latter only inhibits one of the pathways involved in acid secretion. The superior acid-suppressive effect of PPI over an H2RA has been verified by comparative studies. 2-5Because of the different mechanism of these two drugs, esomeprazole has a longer duration than cimetidine. After converted to the active form, Esomeprazole can bind reversibly to the H+/K+-ATPase. As a result, esomeprazole will not be easily enzymatically metabolized and the major factor that leading to gather upiness of effect of esomeprazole is largely dependent on the production of new H+/K+-ATPase. This is reason why esomeprazole has a rather long duration of effect on inhibition of acid secretion.In terms of therapeutic outcomes, it has been shown that higher efficacy is found in PPI treatments than in H2RA treatments for a wide range of diseases such(prenominal) as peptic ulcer disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease, GI damage caused by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. 6 V13, as revealed by many studies. One of these aimed to investigate oesophagitis in which a meta-analysis of 43 therapeutic trials was conducted in patients with moderate or seve re oesophagitis. The proportion of patients successfully treated was al approximately doubled with PPIs, and the rapidity of mend and symptom relief were about twice that with H2RAs. 14 Thus, It had confirmed the advantage of PPIs over H2RAs. 15To sum up, up to the present stage, esomerprazole seems to be more effective and a more preferable choice than cimetidine for the treatment of most gastric acid-related diseases.SafetyIn fact, both cimetidine and esomeprazole are quite safe and they rarely have adverse effects that may be lethal. In a meta-analysis of 24 double-blind placebo-controlled studies, it shows negligible difference of incidence of side effects between cimetidine and placebo. The most commonly reported adverse effects are dissipation, other gastrointestinal disturbances, dizziness, tiredness, rashes and headache. Furthermore, most adverse effects of cimetidine are panelling-related and as the length of treatment increases, the risk is decreased which means Cimetidi ne is rather secure for patients who require long-term treatment. Also, Cimetidine has significant anti-androgen effects in patient receiving high dose and this puts some male patients in fear.Adverse effects of Esomeprazole are infrequent as Cimetidine, but some of its common side effects like headache, diarrhea and skin rashes can be severe and may need to resolve on drug discontinuation. Moreover, recognized increases in the prevalence of pneumonia and Campylobacter enteritis as well as a doubling of the risk of infection with Clostridium difficile should not be overlooked due to the role of esomeprazole as a first-line drug.What should emphasize is that patients still need health care professionals careful indication as if both drugs are safe. Since esomeprazole is one of the most frequently prescribed medicine and 63% , 33% and 67% of hospital inpatients in Austria, Ireland and the United Kingdom did not meet the criteria for taking esomeprazole or other proton pump inhibitors. As a result, it is pharmacoeconomically unfavorable and improved clinical pharmaceutical care can be achieved by detailed indication by the cooperation of pharmacist and health care professionals. What is more, these two drugs are placed in the same Pregnancy Category by the US FDA and they are not advised for the pregnant women. Because of their inhibition of parietal cells, secretion of intrinsic factor is reduced. As a result, both drugs can lead to mal-absorption of Vitamin B12 which is important for maturation of Erythrocytes and DNA synthesis and thus Vitamin B12 therapy may be needed.Drug interactionsThey interact with a wide variety of drugs except that they both reduce absorption of acid-dependent drugs due to their effect of lowering of the stomach pH, but in fact only drugs with a concentrate therapeutic index have clinical significance. The majority of interactions is due to binding of cimetidine to cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in the liver with subsequent inhibition of microsomal oxidative transfiguration and increased bioavailability or plasma concentrations of drugs metabolised by these enzymes. These drugs are anticoagulants, phenytoin, theophylline, benzodiazepines, betal-blockers, lidocaine, Procainamide, ketoconazole and itraconazole.Similarly, Esomeprazole interferes with the elimination of drugs metabolized by isoenzyme CYP2C19 and to a smaller extent by CYP3A4. Therefore, it increases the plasma level of clarithromycin, amoxicillin, diazepam, phenytoin, and warfarin. In addition, esomeprazole has a potential interaction with atazanavir which is a HIV-Protease Inhibitor to treat HIV by substantially reducing the concentration of atazanavir.ConclusionSummarizing all the above mentioned features, Nexium is seemingly a burst drug in terms of its potency, therapeutic effects as well as its range of application in clinical conditions, comparing to Tagamet. However, its benefits and drawbacks may be revealed in the future by research works, wh ich should be always aware of.

Atchafalaya: River Control :: essays research papers

The Atchafalaya is the most original basins because it has a growing system with very stable wetlands. It is also the biggest river swamp in North America but has befuddled about 3,760 acres between 1932 and 1990. The loss of the wetlands is primarily due to erosion, human activities, and natural conversion. Many human activities, such as oil and gas pipelines, brook interrupted the movement of flow and sediment within the wetlands that it is another factor in the loss of acres for the Atchafalaya. But in that location is not a full(a) loss in this, the Atchafalaya have also positive outlooks on things. The basin consists of more tilt compared to any other natural pee system in North America. Let alone the production and distribution of three types of crawfish found in Atchafalaya. The crawfish is the main moneymaker for New Orleans fish markets. But the crawfish may only resemble 10-20% of what is caught. Most of it results in bycatch, organisms caught in the shrimp nets that are discarded, and the Atchafalaya is seen some times as a afloat(p) graveyard of different expired species.Unfortunately, natural delta growth has been hampered by dredging activities along the main navigation channel. Dredge materials have been placed along side the channel, there by choking off the natural supply of fresh water and sediment to the marsh. TO solve this problem Atchafalaya sediment projects were designed to restore fresh water and sediment delivery processes to the Atchafalaya delta. Within 20 years, this is expected to create an additional 3,000 acres of wetland habitat.Out of the 50,000 acres of Atchafalaya, three fourths of it is clubbyly owned. The only way this is pertinacious is if the land accretes from the shore of a lake or a bayou, it is the property of an owner. But if the land accretes as an island, the state owns it making it an imbalance between government and private landowners. Most landowners are not looking at Atchafalaya as a historical landm ark, but for what is worth under the waters surface as money value. These wetlands support a 1 billion dollar annual fishery industry, therefore making these wetlands a positive outlook on the commerce opportunities for the Louisiana people. Many fishermen make a living off of the marine species inhabiting the Atchafalaya. But the employment for this occupation is decreasing because of the land loss. Making it difficult for fishermen to experience what is government owned and what is privately owned.

Calixta As the Ideal Woman of the 1800s in At The Cadian Ball by Kate

Calixta As the Ideal Wo creation of the 1800s in At The Cadian hunk by Kate ChopinCalixta would be there That little Spanish vixen. No matter what the age, there are certain types of women who seem to capture the attention of every man in the room. In the story At the Cadian Ball by Kate Chopin, the protagonist Calixta is precisely that kind of a girl. She is an atypical female of her time. The ideal woman of the easy 1800s was demure, prim and restrained. She was the paragon of prudery, modesty personified. Then there was Calixta. Calixta was everything that the idealized Madonna of her time was not. She was boldly flirtatious, impulsive, sensuous and altogether outrageous. For all these anomalous characteristics, she is esteem in a fashion. Especially since society of the time is rather homogenous and has strict guidelines for behaviour.The heavy racial preconceptions of the times are also evident in this story. The only reason Calixtas scandalous behavior is tolerated by the c ommunity is in her ethnicity. Even so, the men do not seem to mind her behavior much. The women on the other hand did not always approve. Bon chien tient de race She was dismissed often leniently since her mother was Spanish. It did not matter that Calixta had never been to Cuba. The fact that Spanish blood flowed through her veins was enough for the people to automatically assume she was indecent. Perhaps Calixta was influenced by these preconceived expectations. Yet despite her shocking behavior, her indecency was innocent, and deliberate at the same time. Her taunts towards Bobinot, Mais, wats the matta? Standin plante la like ole maame Tinas cow in the bog you was deliberately provocative, however it came naturally to her. Since ... ...ixta is no exception. Alcee is intriguing for her therefore, she pursues him, with harmless trifling and suggestions.She does not feel quite right unless there is someone admiring her, since Alcee is obviously not going to do that, she decides B obinot is better than nix is. Calixtas conduct directly reflects her purposes. Despite the fact that she is distinctive in personality and manner she ends up marrying Bobinot. In essence, she does what all the women do, albeit in a distinguishable manner. She does take initiative in proposing marriage. However, the point is that she gets married. In the end, regardless of her outrageously coquettish behavior, she is like all other women and want what they have the stability and love. Thus, she marries Bobinot whom she knows loves her. outlaw(a) conduct notwithstanding she conforms in a fashion and obeys the rules.